Rome and Persia
At the time of the Prophet Muhammad's advent, the world was dominated by two mighty empires: the Roman (Byzantine) and the Persian (Sasanian). These civilizations held sway over vast territories, with the Persian Empire extending from the Mediterranean Sea to the Caspian Sea, and the Roman Empire encompassing territories from Europe to Asia Minor and Egypt.
The Persian Empire, once expansive under the Sassanid dynasty, had endured the rise and fall of various rulers but maintained its cultural and civilizational strength. Similarly, the Roman Empire, with its capital in Rome, was ruled by leaders like Julius Caesar and Augustus, controlling vast territories across Europe, Asia Minor, and Egypt.
While Rome remained the capital of the western part of the empire, Constantinople served as the capital of the eastern part. The Eastern Roman Empire, centred around Constantinople, boasted greater grandeur and power than its western counterpart.
Despite their strength, both empires were not without internal conflicts and occasional warfare between the eastern and western parts. However, it was the emergence of Islam in Arabia that would eventually challenge and surpass the dominance of these two great civilizations.
Picture 1: Rome and Persian Empires (A.D 600)
Abu Bakr Siddiq was strategic in his approach, understanding the geopolitical landscape and the potential threats posed by neighbouring powers like the Persians. Instead of directly confronting them, he opted to buy time by dealing with internal challenges first.
He sent Muthanna bin Harithah to Iraq with a small column, not to engage in full-scale warfare, but to conduct raids aimed at instilling fear among the Persian authorities, thus deterring them from launching an attack on Arabia. Similarly, he dispatched Usamah's detachment against the Romans for a similar purpose.
Once the internal threats in Najd and Yamamah were subdued, Abu Bakr directed Iyad bin Ghanam to lead an attack on the upper parts of Iraq, while instructing Khalid bin Walid to move towards the lower parts. This coordinated effort aimed to assert Muslim presence and deter potential aggression from the Persian Empire.
The Battle of Dht-us-Salasil (Battle of Chains)
The Battle of Dht-us-Salasil, was the first battle fought between the Rashidun Caliphate and the Sasanian Empire in 633. Khalid bin Walid strategically prepared his army of eighteen thousand soldiers to confront Hurmuz, the governor of the Persian province of Hafir, known for his military prowess. Khalid initiated contact by inviting Hurmuz to Islam, but the response was a formidable Persian army led by Hurmuz himself.
Dividing his forces into three wings, Khalid assigned Adi bin Hatim, Qa'qa' bin Amr, and himself to lead each wing. Positioned a day's journey away from each other, they converged near Hafir to face the Persian army.
The Persian army, witnessing their commander's defeat, attempted to retaliate, but Qa'qa' bin Amr held firm, leading to a fierce battle. Overwhelmed by the Muslim onslaught, the Persians fled, leaving behind chains they had bound themselves with, earning the battle the name "Dhat-us-Salasil."
After the victory, Muthanna bin Harithah pursued the fleeing Persians, laying siege to Hisn-ul-Marah and eventually conquering it, resulting in the death of its ruler. His wife embraced Islam and expressed a desire to marry Muthanna.
The Battle of Qarin
In response to Hurmuz's call for aid, a large Persian reinforcement troop was dispatched, only to encounter the frustrating news of Hurmuz's demise and the retreat of his soldiers.
In the ensuing battle, the Muslim army, led by Khalid bin Walid, engaged the Persians. Despite the Persians' numerical advantage, all three of their generals—Qarin, Qibad, and Anushjan—were slain, resulting in the death of thirty thousand Persian soldiers and the drowning of many fleeing troops in the canal.
The Battle of Walajah
After the death of Qarin and the other Persian generals, the Persian ruler sent Andarzagar, a renowned horseman, to lead the Persian army. They set out from Mada'in and arrived at Walajah. Additionally, another general named Bahman Jadwaih was dispatched from Mada'in with a strong army.
Khalid bin Walid led his troops in an attack on the Persian army, resulting in their defeat after a fierce battle. The Persian general died of thirst on the battlefield. However, Bahman Jadwaih managed to reach Ullais, where he was joined by Persian fugitives and received support from Christian Arabs.
Battle of Ullais
Informed of the presence of a large army at Ullais, Khalid bin Walid himself led his troops in an attack. Khalid initiated a duel by calling out Malik bin Qais from the Persian camp and killing him. This sparked an all-out battle, resulting in the deaths of seventy thousand enemy fighters at the hands of the Muslims.
Conquest of Hirah
From Ullais, Khalid bin Walid marched to Hirah and besieged it. After besieging Hirah, Khalid bin Walid negotiated peace with its chief, Amr bin Abdul-Masih, who agreed to pay two hundred thousand dirhams as tribute. Khalid then dispatched small columns led by trusted commanders to enforce either the Jizyah or conversion to Islam among neighbouring tribes, extending his control up to the Tigris.
Conquest of Anbar
Khalid bin Walid marched from Hirah to Anbar, where the Persians, led by Sherzad, had fortified themselves. Despite facing arrow showers that injured around a thousand Muslim soldiers, Khalid devised a clever strategy by using slaughtered camels to reach the ramparts and overpower the Persians. Seeing defeat imminent, Sherzad sought peace, and Khalid allowed him and a few companions to leave with provisions for three days. Khalid's victory secured Anbar, and he appointed Zabraqan bin Badr to govern the city before marching to Ain-ut-Tamr.
Conquest of Ain-ut-Tamr
Uqbah bin Uqbah, eager to prove Arab prowess in battle, challenged the Muslims to a duel. Khalid bin Walid accepted and captured Uqbah alive, causing his men to flee in panic and also be captured. Seeing this, Mehran bin Bahram, the Persian commander, fled his fort, which subsequently fell to the Muslim army.
Upper Iraq
Khalid bin Walid completed his mission relatively quickly, while Iyad bin Ghanam, dispatched around the same time, was still engaged in his task. His target territory spanned Iraq, Iran, and Syria, impacting both Persia and Heraclius. As Khalid conquered Ain-ut-Tamr, Iyad confronted the rulers of Dumat-ul-Jandal after victories over polytheists and Christian tribes. Facing opposition from Ukaidir bin Malik and Judi bin Rabi'ah, who had rallied Christians against the Muslims, Iyad sought Khalid's assistance against the formidable enemy army.
Conquest of Dumat-al-Jandal
Khalid bin Walid appointed Qa'qa' bin Amr as his deputy in Hirah before swiftly moving on to Dumat-ul-Jandal. Upon Khalid's arrival, the news of his presence struck fear into the hearts of the locals. Despite counsel from Ukaidir to make peace with the Muslims, Judi and other Christian chiefs adamantly refused. Eventually, Ukaidir severed ties with them and departed alone, only to encounter a Muslim column along the way, resulting in his death in battle.
Khalid then challenged Judi to a duel and swiftly captured him, causing his men to flee. Meanwhile, Iyad bin Ghanam also achieved victory over his Christian adversaries, forcing them to flee as well.
The Battle of Firad
Khalid bin Walid arrived at Firad, a crucial junction connecting Persia, Syria, and Arabia, where Banu Taghlib, Banu Namir, and Banu Jyyad were already gathered, with the Roman army nearby in support. The battle unfolded across the Euphrates River, with both sides facing off after the Romans crossed the river at Khalid's invitation. Despite being outnumbered and exhausted from continuous travel and fighting, Khalid's forces emerged victorious, with the Romans suffering heavy losses of around one hundred thousand soldiers.
Following this triumph, Khalid returned to Hirah and then embarked on a secret journey to Makkah to perform Hajj with a small group. However, news of his pilgrimage eventually reached Abu Bakr Siddiq, who expressed displeasure at Khalid's actions and advised against repeating them.
Khalid remained in Hirah until Rabi' Al-Awwal 13 AH, having entered in Muharram 12 AH. Throughout this time, he faced numerous enemies and fought fierce battles against overwhelming odds, emerging victorious in each encounter. Khalid's unmatched military prowess and unwavering determination earned him legendary status, with both Roman and Persian powers trembling at the mention of his name.
However, Khalid's success was not merely a result of his individual abilities but also stemmed from his training and guidance in the style of Abu Bakr Siddiq. The coordination of Muslim forces was meticulously planned from Al-Madinah, ensuring strategic effectiveness in all operations. Abu Bakr Siddiq remained informed of the details of military movements, underscoring the unity and coordination of the Islamic forces under his leadership.
Route of Khalid-Ibn-Walid
Below map shows the route of the Khalid Ibn Walid in the events of conquest of Persia and Rome
Khalid bin Walid in Syria
Khalid bin Walid's military campaigns not only eradicated apostasy in Arabia but also deterred the Persians from invading Al-Madinah. The looming threat from the Syrian front, led by the Romans and Ghassanids, demanded immediate attention. Shurahbil bin Amr's hostile actions, including the martyrdom of the Prophet's emissary and preparations for invasion, prompted the Prophet to send Usamah bin Zaid's army to Syria.
Despite his involvement in internal conflicts, Khalid was directed to address the Syrian threat without direct confrontation, prioritizing internal stability. Heraclius, upon learning of the Muslim presence, incited local tribes against them, leading to a clash with Roman forces under Mahan's leadership. Heraclius himself then mobilized a massive army to retaliate.
Khalid promptly informed the Caliph of the situation and received reinforcements from Ikrimah bin Abu Jahl and Amr bin Al-As. Abu Bakr Siddiq coordinated multiple detachments under various commanders to attack Syria from different directions, including Yazid bin Abu Sufyan, Abu Ubaidah bin Al-Jarrah, and Shurahbil bin Hasanah. This coordinated effort aimed to counter Heraclius's formidable army, which outnumbered the Muslims significantly.
As Muslim forces entered Syria, they faced overwhelming odds, with each detachment outnumbered eight to one. Recognizing the need for unity, the Muslim generals assembled at Yarmuk, where they received orders from Abu Bakr Siddiq to unite against the enemy. Khalid, appointed supreme commander, rushed to the front with ten thousand troops, leaving the remainder under Muthanna bin Harithah's command in Hirah.
Heraclius, mirroring the Muslim strategy, formed a united front, led by his brother Tadharaq and reinforced by Mahan. Thus, both sides prepared for a decisive confrontation, setting the stage for the Battle of Yarmuk.
The Battle of Yarmuk
Khalid bin Walid demonstrated his strategic prowess by preempting an imminent Roman attack. Anticipating the enemy's move, he divided his army into smaller squads and briefed each commander on the planned strategy. When the Romans launched their assault, Khalid's forces repelled them successfully.
During the battle, Khalid engaged in dialogue with Jurjah bin Budhiyah, a Roman general, who converted to Islam on the spot. Despite being outnumbered, the Muslim soldiers fought valiantly, with women even joining the fray. The bravery of notable figures like Abu Sufyan, Ikrimah bin Abu Jahl, and Dirar bin Azwar inspired the troops, who fought with unwavering determination.
The conflict raged from dawn till dusk, with both sides sustaining heavy casualties. Eventually, the Romans, demoralised and fatigued, began to retreat, only to be chased down by the relentless Muslim forces. The battle concluded with a decisive victory for the Muslims, resulting in the death of Tadharaq, the Roman commander, and the martyrdom of three thousand Muslims.
The Battle of Yarmuk is believed to have taken place towards the end of Jumada Al-Ukhra, contrary to some accounts placing it in Rabi' Al-Awwal or Rabi' Al-Akhir 13 AH. This discrepancy likely arose due to the delay in news reaching Al-Madinah, as reports of the conquest of Yarmuk were received after the death of Abu Bakr Siddiq.
Death of Abu Bakr Siddiq
In the beginning of Jumada Al-Ukhra 13 AH, Abu Bakr fell ill with a fever that persisted for two weeks, signaling his approaching end. In consultation with Abdur-Rahman bin Auf, he deliberated on the caliphate, considering Umar as his successor. Despite Umar's perceived sternness, Abu Bakr believed he would moderate in his leadership role. Consulting others like Uthman bin Affan and Ali, who held Umar in high regard, Abu Bakr sought their opinions. Talhah expressed concerns, but Abu Bakr remained steadfast in his decision, appointing Umar as the caliph. He then instructed Uthman to draft his will, affirming Umar's appointment and expressing confidence in his ability to lead with justice and endurance.
After completing the writing of his will, Abu Bakr Siddiq summoned the people and, despite his ailing health, addressed them. He emphasized that he hadn't chosen Umar as caliph based on personal preference but after consulting wise individuals. Upon their agreement, he instructed them to obey Umar's commands. The people pledged their allegiance, and Abu Bakr directly addressed Umar, advising him to fear Allah internally and externally, to fulfill the obligations of prayer, and to seek salvation through righteous deeds and adherence to the Quran. He passed away on Monday, 22 Jumada Al-Ukhra, 13 AH, and was buried before the night prayer.
Abu Bakr's caliphate lasted two-and-a-half years. On the same day, Attab bin Usaid, the governor of Makkah, also passed away. Meanwhile, Muthanna bin Harithah returned to Al-Madinah to inform the Caliph about the Persian threat in Iraq. Upon Abu Bakr's death, Umar was tasked with addressing the impending danger. Muthanna reached Al-Madinah just before Abu Bakr's departure, and although Umar heard him out, Abu Bakr expressed his trust in Umar's ability to safeguard the Muslims' welfare through prayer.
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